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    The indicator of management effort was made by summing all the overlapping MPAs on each 1ha pixel across the whole Mediterranean Sea (based on MAPAMED, the database on Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas, MedPAN, RAC/SPA, 2014). One to three points were given to each 1ha-pixel inside MPAs according to the increasing densities of permanent staff and boats for research and surveillance in the MPA; one point was given to all the pixels inside MPAs with management plans (Management effort index). Management effort scores varied from zero to seven.